Thailand and Cambodia: The Persistent Border Conflict and 2025 Escalation

**The International Court of Justice (ICJ)**, known as the World Court, is the United Nations' principal judicial organ, settling legal disputes between states and issuing advisory opinions on international law questions referred by UN bodies.[1][2][3] Housed in The Hague's Peace Palace, it stands as the sole UN organ outside New York, operating in English and French with jurisdiction based on state consent via agreements or declarations.[1][3] Established in June 1945 under the UN Charter—succeeding the League of Nations' Permanent Court of International Justice (1922–1940)—the ICJ began operations in 1946.[1][2][6] Its 15 judges, elected for nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and Security Council, represent diverse civilizations and legal systems, with no two from the same nation; they serve independently, not as government representatives.[1][3] The ICJ adjudicates **contentious cases** (80% of its docket), covering territorial disputes, maritime boundaries, diplomatic protections, and modern issues like humanitarian law, environmental concerns, and use of force.[3][6] Its rulings bind consenting states and shape international law precedents, while non-binding advisory opinions guide UN agencies.[1][2] Key achievements include resolving over 180 cases since inception, such as boundary delimitations and landmark opinions on nuclear weapons legality, reinforcing global rule of law post-World War II.[1][6] Currently active into the 2020s, the ICJ maintains relevance amid geopolitical tensions, distinguishing itself from the criminal-focused International Criminal Court (ICC), which targets individuals for atrocities.[3][7] Note: A separate entity, the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ), is an NGO advancing human rights via lawyers and judges, but lacks the judicial authority of the UN court.[4] This enduring institution exemplifies technology's role in diplomacy through digital case archives and live proceedings, captivating business leaders tracking global stabilit

## Overview UNESCO—the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization—is a specialized UN agency headquartered in Paris, France, with 194 member states and 12 associate members[6]. Established in 1945 in the aftermath of World War II, UNESCO was founded to build peace through international cooperation in education, science, and culture, directly addressing the belief that political and economic agreements alone cannot secure lasting peace[1][6]. Its mission is rooted in fostering dialogue, sustainable development, and human rights by promoting collaboration across nations[6]. ## Core Activities UNESCO operates across five main program areas: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, and communication/information[6]. The organization sets global norms and standards, develops policy frameworks, and builds international networks—most notably through its World Heritage, Biosphere Reserves, and Global Geoparks programs[1]. UNESCO is a leader in global education, guiding efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 4 (quality education) and convening high-level forums like the Global Education Meeting[2][5]. In science, UNESCO supports international research, ethical guidelines, and innovation, including co-chairing UN initiatives on artificial intelligence (AI) and digital governance[5]. Culturally, UNESCO protects and promotes both tangible and intangible heritage, maintaining the World Heritage List and supporting the preservation of cultural diversity[1][6]. ## Key Achievements UNESCO’s most visible achievement is its World Heritage program, which has inscribed over 1,150 sites of outstanding universal value, safeguarding them for future generations[1]. The organization has also pioneered global literacy campaigns, advanced Holocaust and genocide education to combat antisemitism, and promoted media freedom through initiatives like the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists[1][5]. UNESCO’s work in science includes fostering international collaboration on climate action, water resource management, and ethical standards in emerging technologies[5][7]. ## Current Status As of 2025